法医学杂志, 2021, 37(5): 694-698 DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.300702

综述

高频暴露催眠镇静药及阿片类镇痛药的流行病学特点

白锐,, 谢冰, 丛斌, 马春玲,, 文迪,

河北医科大学法医学院 河北省法医学重点实验室 河北省法医分子鉴定协同创新中心,河北 石家庄 050017

Epidemiological Characteristics of Sedative-Hypnotics and Opioid Painkillers at High-Frequency Exposure

BAI Rui,, XIE Bing, CONG Bin, MA Chun-ling,, WEN Di,

Hebei Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Forensic Medical Molecular Identification, College of Forensic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China

通讯作者: 马春玲,女,教授,主任法医师,主要从事法医毒物学研究;E-mail:chunlingma@126.com文迪,男,教授,副主任法医师,主要从事法医毒物学研究;E-mail:wendi01125@126.com

编委: 严慧

收稿日期: 2020-07-16  

基金资助: 国家重点研发计划资助项目.  2018YFC0807204

Received: 2020-07-16  

作者简介 About authors

白锐(1983—),女,博士,主要从事法医毒物学研究;E-mail:15822925144@163.com

摘要

药物中毒在医疗机构的接诊率较高且其后果较为严重,其流行病学特点也直接影响国家法律政策的变更以及地方管理政策的施行。我国对涉药非正常死亡案例的统计一般来源于司法鉴定中心和医疗单位,但由于工作内容及专业的限制导致信息管理形式存在差异,鉴定人员很难针对涉药案例进行专业的系统性分析。本文通过分析美国毒物控制中心的年度报告,并结合我国药物暴露特点,重点分析催眠镇静药、阿片类镇痛药的流行病学特点及其在中毒死亡案例中的暴露模式。

关键词: 法医毒理学 ; 中毒 ; 催眠镇静药 ; 阿片类镇痛药 ; 暴露 ; 综述

Abstract

Drug poisoning has a high incidence and serious consequences in medical institutions; its epidemiological characteristics also directly affect the changes in national laws and policies and the implementation of local management policies. Chinese statistics on drug-related abnormal death cases generally come from judicial appraisal centers and medical units. However, due to differences in work content and professional restrictions, there are differences in information management forms, which makes it difficult for appraisers to conduct a professional and systematic analysis of drug-related cases. This article focuses on the analysis of epidemiological characteristics of sedative-hypnotics and opioid painkillers and their exposure patterns in cases of poisoning death by analyzing the annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Center, combined with the characteristics of drug exposure in China.

Keywords: forensic toxicology ; intoxication ; sedative-hypnotic ; opioid painkillers ; exposure ; review

PDF (583KB) 元数据 多维度评价 相关文章 导出 EndNote| Ris| Bibtex  收藏本文

本文引用格式

白锐, 谢冰, 丛斌, 马春玲, 文迪. 高频暴露催眠镇静药及阿片类镇痛药的流行病学特点. 法医学杂志[J], 2021, 37(5): 694-698 DOI:10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.300702

BAI Rui, XIE Bing, CONG Bin, MA Chun-ling, WEN Di. Epidemiological Characteristics of Sedative-Hypnotics and Opioid Painkillers at High-Frequency Exposure. Journal of Forensic Medicine[J], 2021, 37(5): 694-698 DOI:10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.300702

治疗性药物中毒或死亡的判定一直是毒物鉴定工作者面临的一个难题。治疗性药物中毒往往导致医疗机构接诊率更高并导致医疗结局更差[1]。与传统所关注的药物过量中毒不同,治疗性药物中毒还具有多种药物同时服用的特点。因此,对中枢神经系统药物之间及其与其他毒物(如乙醇)的暴露模式的探讨就成为中枢神经系统药物中毒案件鉴定过程中的重要问题。本文基于国内司法鉴定和健康管理机构药物中毒的流行病学特点,结合美国毒物控制中心的年度报告,对催眠镇静药(包含镇静催眠药和抗精神失常药)及阿片类镇痛药的暴露特点进行分析。

1 治疗性药物中毒严重程度的评定

在我国,尽管依据个别致死案例很难对药物种类作出统计性评估,但地方医院急诊科的中毒病例以及司法鉴定部门的中毒死亡案例分析结果显示,乙醇、杀虫剂和药物(包括合法与非法)中毒位居前列[2],治疗性药物(合法药物)以镇静催眠及镇痛药为主[3],且抗精神失常药中毒案例近年来呈上升趋势[4]。与非药物中毒的暴露模式不同,治疗性药物中毒可出现1种药物或多种药物中毒的情况。美国2018年度报告[5]显示,在涉及1种毒物中毒的案例中,78.3%为治疗性药物中毒。在我国,治疗性药物中毒案例主要以1种药物中毒为主[2],亦有多药共服致死案例的报道[6-7]

目前,国际上关于治疗性药物中毒尚缺乏统一的评定标准。美国毒物控制中心制定了包括治疗性药物中毒在内的几千种暴露物中毒的判定标准[5];医疗机构急诊科多采用与临床症状相关的评判标准,如格拉斯哥昏迷量表(Glasgow coma scale)等[48];AYANI等[9]制定了针对中枢神经系统药物中毒严重程度分级的标准。然而与标准选择同样重要的是不同鉴定人或医生对评价标准的理解和对关键词定义的把握[10],因而当涉及多药中毒时,各个药物与临床结局的关系以及中毒程度的判定是药物中毒案例判定中亟须解决的问题。

2 流行病学特点

美国2016年度报告[11]中的“高频暴露”是指中、重度及死亡医疗结局案例中具有较高暴露频次的药物。高频暴露药物是毒物鉴定中的重点,而催眠镇静药及镇痛药的暴露具有普遍流行及稳定性。美国2015—2018年度报告[1511-12]显示,中、重度以及死亡医疗结局案例中前25种高频暴露物质以阿片类镇痛药、新型催眠镇静药为主。其他研究[813-17]结果也显示,这些药物中毒普遍存在并与死亡率间有相关性。与美国[18]、伊朗[19]的研究相比,我国报道的案例显示:镇静催眠药(如阿普唑仑、地西泮、艾司唑仑等)和抗精神病药(如奥氮平、氯氮平、氯丙嗪等)亦为高频暴露药物[20-23];阿片类镇痛药并未因疼痛治疗的开展而出现滥用[24],但非阿片类镇痛药尤其是复方制剂却有中毒致死的报道[25-26],这与美国年度报告[1511-12]中关于复方制剂致死的情况一致。

3 中毒特点

我国镇痛类药物致死案例主要涉及非阿片类镇痛药[3]。在美国,阿片类药中毒比例显著高于中国和日本,根本原因可能在于治疗性药物的滥用[27]。据报道[27],美国至少3%的非癌痛成年患者在接受阿片类处方药的长期治疗,男性倾向于非治疗目的的滥用,而女性(45~54岁)更倾向于不合理使用,可能是由于这一群体更容易遭遇骨关节炎和肌肉劳损等慢性疼痛,且更容易长期服用高剂量的处方药物,甚至发展为使用非法药物[28],青少年群体(15~24岁)也存在为减轻疼痛、追求精神放松而出现不合理使用药物的冲动[29]

镇静催眠药和阿片类镇痛药属于易成瘾的精神活性药物。在美国、中国和日本,镇静催眠药都是急诊科最常见的治疗药物。镇静催眠药最主要的适应证是焦虑和睡眠障碍。其中,苯二氮䓬类药物的使用存在明确适应证和使用周期限制,如老年人不推荐长期使用高剂量的长半衰期药物(如地西泮、氯硝西泮)。另外,根据DELL’OSSO等[30]的分析,苯二氮䓬类联合抗抑郁药可用于控制严重抑郁的焦虑、失眠症状,而对于精神分裂症、双向障碍等精神病中的使用却存在争议。SCHIFANO等[31]还指出,扎来普隆、唑吡坦和佐匹克隆同样存在药物依赖、滥用和戒断症状,并呼吁人们对这类药物的安全性应提高认识。除药物滥用引起中毒外,镇静催眠药过量中毒还常见于自杀、谋杀及其他违法行为[32]

阿片类镇痛药非治疗性目的使用、镇静催眠药的超标使用,及其本身所具有的成瘾、依赖特性可能是此类麻醉精神药品过量中毒的主要原因。

多项流行病学研究[433]显示,抗精神病药中毒率呈上升趋势。抗精神病药具有多受体结合的特点,一代抗精神病药(如氯丙嗪)具有非常强的阻断多巴胺、抗胆碱及抗组胺能受体的作用,二代抗精神病药(如氯氮平)可有效阻断5-羟色胺2A受体及关闭多巴胺2受体[15],此类药超标使用(尤其是二代抗精神病药)可导致运动障碍、代谢综合征、低血压、便秘等多种不良反应[34]。SHAMEER等[35]研究发现,心肌缺血、心律失常及高血压是精神病患者30 d内再入院的风险因素,精神疾病与心脏代谢疾病可能存在共享遗传模块,精神异常或服用抗精神病药是患者发生心脏功能异常的危险因素。

4 治疗量与药物协同作用

精神异常患者具有较高的服毒自杀倾向,而治疗性药物的易获得性使其成为精神病患者实施自杀行为的首选[36]。美国疾控中心指出,在自杀意图不明的案例中,毒物鉴定工作者可以向心理学家和临床心理医生咨询死者实施自我伤害行为前的心理状况,以明确判定自杀原因[37]。FAWCETT等[38]在1990年的报道中指出,促使精神病人自杀的危险因素包括严重的精神焦虑、激动、惊恐发作和严重的失眠,因而对于出现上述相关精神症状的原发精神障碍患者或物质使用障碍患者均应实施抗精神失常药的干预。因此,当抗精神失常药治疗量不足时可能会发生自杀行为。GRAVENSTEEN等[16]针对涉及中枢活性物质自杀案例的研究也表明,精神疾病的诊断率和药物治疗量不足是自杀发生的风险因素。也有研究[3639]针对具体抗精神失常药物种类与自我伤害行为之间进行相关性分析,结果显示,精神异常可能导致自杀。

与依赖于血药浓度的单一非治疗性药物中毒案例不同的是,治疗性药物中毒致死可能涉及多种药物过量甚至治疗量中毒致死的可能。对于中枢神经系统药物还会涉及药物对自杀行为实施的解释等问题,如成瘾、戒断症状及原发精神障碍与自杀实施关联性的解释。已有报道[40]证明,一些特定药物-药物、药物-物质组合可能会导致中毒及死亡的发生,如苯二氮䓬类药物与第一代抗精神病药共用可能会加剧呼吸抑制作用。在阿片类药不过量的情况下,镇静催眠药与阿片类药合用时同样会导致致死性呼吸抑制[15]。乙醇是药物中毒案例中不可忽略的物质。我国涉及乙醇中毒的案例高于处方药物中毒案例[4];在涉药中毒案例中,也经常检出乙醇,乙醇可协同中枢抑制药物(如阿片类镇痛药、催眠镇静药)起到共同抑制呼吸的作用[15];即使在非乙醇中毒案例,乙醇也可通过减少抑制性想法和行为的方式促使自杀行为的实施[19]

针对2种药物共同作用导致死亡的问题,LAUNIAINEN等[41]在排除股静脉血乙醇质量浓度≥0.25 g/100 mL[42]、死亡证明明确标注为外部原因致死以及目标药物成分≥10倍最大治疗浓度情况后提出:当检测到的任一药物≤10倍最大治疗剂量可归因于药效学相互作用机制;而当目标药物成分<5倍最大治疗剂量且另一种药物成分浓度≥最大治疗浓度时归结于药物代谢动力学相互作用机制。这对无其他明确致死原因且缺乏自杀及谋杀证据的死因鉴定或许有一定的帮助。

通过学习和分析美国毒物控制中心年度报告及治疗性药物中毒在我国的流行病学特征,笔者对催眠镇静药以及阿片类镇痛药的流行病学特点总结如下:(1)催眠镇静药及阿片类镇痛药中毒具有普遍流行、临床结局严重的特点。(2)多药共服是处方药中毒的特点,药物组合即使在治疗量范围内也可能产生致死性后果。(3)精神病患者在抗精神失常药治疗量不足的情况下可能实施自杀。

参考文献

GUMMIN D D, MOWRY J B, SPYKER D A, et al. 2017 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers’ National Poison Data System (NPDS):35th annual report[J]. Clin Toxicol (Phila),2018,56(12):1213-1415. doi:10.1080/15563650.2018.1533727.

[本文引用: 3]

ZHANG Y, YU B, WANG N, et al. Acute poisoning in Shenyang, China: A retrospective and descriptive study from 2012 to 2016[J]. BMJ Open,2018,8(8): e21881. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021881.

[本文引用: 2]

PAN M, WANG X, ZHAO Y, et al. A retrospective analysis of data from forensic toxicology at the Academy of Forensic Science in 2017[J]. Forensic Sci Int,2019,298:39-47. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint. 2019.02.039.

[本文引用: 2]

CHEN F, WEN J, WANG X, et al. Epidemiology and characteristics of acute poisoning treated at an emergency center[J]. World J Emerg Med,2010,1(2):154-156.

[本文引用: 4]

GUMMIN D D, MOWRY J B, SPYKER D A, et al. 2018 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS):36th annual report[J]. Clin Toxicol (Phila),2019,57(12):1220-1413. doi:10.1080/15563650.2019.1677022.

[本文引用: 4]

LIU Q, ZHOU L, ZHENG N, et al. Poisoning deaths in China: Type and prevalence detected at the Tongji Forensic Medical Center in Hubei[J]. Forensic Sci Int,2009,193(1/2/3):88-94. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.09.013.

[本文引用: 1]

毛瑞明,朱承睿,曲延金,等. 口服多种药物中毒致死1例[J]. 法医学杂志,2010,26(4):311-312. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-5619.2010.04.026.

[本文引用: 1]

MAO R M, ZHU C R, QU Y J, et al. Poisoning lethal due to oral polypharmacy: A case report[J]. Fayixue Zazhi,2010,26(4):311-312.

[本文引用: 1]

EIZADI M N, SABZGHABAEE A M, YADEGARFAR G, et al. Glasgow coma scale and its components on admission: Are they valuable prognostic tools in acute mixed drug poisoning?[J]. Crit Care Res Pract,2011,2011:952956. doi:10.1155/2011/952956.

[本文引用: 2]

AYANI N, SAKUMA M, MORIMOTO T, et al. The epidemiology of adverse drug events and medication errors among psychiatric inpatients in Japan: The JADE study[J]. BMC Psychiatry,2016,16:303. doi:10.1186/s12888-016-1009-0.

[本文引用: 1]

HUME B, GABELLA B, HATHAWAY J, et al. Assessment of selected overdose poisoning indicators in health care administrative data in 4 states,2012[J]. Public Health Rep,2017,132(4):488-495. doi:10.1177/0033354917718061.

[本文引用: 1]

GUMMIN D D, MOWRY J B, SPYKER D A, et al. 2016 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers’ National Poison Data System (NPDS):34th annual report[J]. Clin Toxicol (Phila),2017,55(10):1072-1252. doi:10.1080/15563650.2017.1388087.

[本文引用: 3]

MOWRY J B, SPYKER D A, BROOKS D E, et al. 2015 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers’ National Poison Data System (NPDS):33rd annual report[J]. Clin Toxicol (Phila),2016,54(10):924-1109. doi:10.1080/15563650.2016.1245421.

[本文引用: 2]

SCHAFFER A, WEINSTOCK L M, SINYOR M, et al. Self-poisoning suicide deaths in people with bipolar disorder: Characterizing a subgroup and identifying treatment patterns[J]. Int J Bipolar Disord,2017,5(1):16. doi:10.1186/s40345-017-0081-9.

[本文引用: 1]

OKUMURA Y, SAKATA N, TAKAHASHI K, et al. Epidemiology of overdose episodes from the period prior to hospitalization for drug poisoning until discharge in Japan: An exploratory descriptive study using a nationwide claims database[J]. J Epidemiol,2017,27(8):373-380. doi:10.1016/j.je.2016.08.010.

FRIDELL M, BACKSTROM M, HESSE M, et al. Prediction of psychiatric comorbidity on premature death in a cohort of patients with substance use disorders: A 42-year follow-up[J]. BMC Psychiatry,2019,19(1):150. doi:10.1186/s12888-019-2098-3.

[本文引用: 3]

GRAVENSTEEN I K, EKEBERG O, THIBLIN I, et al. Psychoactive substances in natural and unnatural deaths in Norway and Sweden -- A study on victims of suicide and accidents compared with natural deaths in psychiatric patients[J]. BMC Psychiatry,2019,19(1):33. doi:10.1186/s12888-019-2015-9.

[本文引用: 1]

TANI N, IKEDA T, MICHIUE T, et al. Analysis of psychotropic drug-related deaths in South Osaka[J]. Subst Abuse Rehabil,2018,9:79-90. doi:10.2147/SAR.S163491.

[本文引用: 1]

GUMMIN D D, MOWRY J B, BEUHLER M C, et al. 2019 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers’ National Poison Data System (NPDS):37th annual report[J]. Clin Toxicol,2020,58(12):1360-1541. doi:10.1080/15563650.2020.1834219.

[本文引用: 1]

KORDROSTAMI R, AKHGARI M, AMERI M, et al. Forensic toxicology analysis of self-poisoning suicidal deaths in Tehran, Iran; Trends between 2011-2015[J]. Daru,2017,25(1):15. doi:10.1186/s40199-017-0181-1.

[本文引用: 2]

马莎莎,韩海霞,高天勤,等. 口服镇静催眠药中毒患者药物治疗性分析[J].药学研究,2019,38(2):112-114. doi:10.13506/j.cnki.jpr.2019.02.013.

[本文引用: 1]

MA S S, HAN H X, GAO T Q, et al. Analysis of drug therapy in patients with oral sedation hypnotic drug poisoning[J]. Yaoxue Yanjiu,2019,38(2):112-114.

[本文引用: 1]

张亚杰. 沈阳地区某三甲医院连续7年急性中毒特征分析[D]. 沈阳:中国医科大学,2019.

ZHANG Y J. Analysis of the characteristics of acute poisonings during 7 consecutive years at a tertiary care hospital in the Shenyang Region[D]. Shenyang: China Medical University,2019.

陈泗虎,朱艳可,郑祥,等. 儿童抗精神病药急性中毒45例临床分析[J].中国乡村医药,2019,26(24):20-21. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1006-5180.2019.24.011.

CHEN S H, ZHU Y K, ZHENG X, et al. Acute poisoning by antipsychotics in children: A clinical analysis of 45 cases[J]. Zhongguo Xiangcun Yiyao,2019,26(24):20-21.

普燕芳,杨雪婷,曹玮. 止痛药致远端肾小管酸中毒患者的药学监护[J].医药导报,2018,37(7):906-908. doi:10.3870/j.issn.1004-0781.2018.07.030.

[本文引用: 1]

PU Y F, YANG X T, CAO W. Pharmacy care of patients with analgesic induced distal renal tubular acidosis[J]. Yiyao Daobao,2018,37(7):906-908.

[本文引用: 1]

牟伟. 止痛药的不良反应和处理[J]. 社区医学杂志,2007,5(10):21-24. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1672-4208.2007.10.010.

[本文引用: 1]

MOU W. Adverse effects and management of pain medication[J]. Shequ Yixue Zazhi,2007,5(10):21-24.

[本文引用: 1]

雷普平,瞿勇强,周济济,等. 酚氨咖敏急性中毒致死1例[J].法医学杂志,2008,24(5):396-397. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-5619.2008.05.035.

[本文引用: 1]

LEI P P, QU Y Q, ZHOU J J, et al. Fatal case of acute poisoning with phenol carmois: A case report[J]. Fayixue Zazhi,2008,24(5):396-397.

[本文引用: 1]

刘超,曹桂洁,宁以才,等. 安痛定中毒致肝坏死1例报告[J].吉林医学,2001,22(4):249. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-0412.2001.04.061.

[本文引用: 1]

LIU C, CAO G J, NING Y C, et al. Liver necrosis due to analgetic poisoning: A case report[J]. Jilin Yixue,2001,22(4):249.

[本文引用: 1]

BRUNO T, PHARR J R. Retrospective case series analysis of characteristics and trends in unintentional pharmaceutical drug poisoning by methadone, opioid analgesics, antidepressants and benzodiazepines in Clark County, NV 2009-13[J]. J Public Health (Oxf),2017,39(2):304-311. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdw052.

[本文引用: 2]

KERRY R, GOOVAERTS P, VOWLES M, et al. Spatial analysis of drug poisoning deaths in the American West, particularly Utah[J]. Int J Drug Policy,2016,33:44-55. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.05.004.

[本文引用: 1]

ALI B, FISHER D A, MILLER T R, et al. Trends in drug poisoning deaths among adolescents and young adults in the United States,2006-2015[J]. J Stud Alcohol Drugs,2019,80(2):201-210. doi:10.15288/jsad.2019.80.201.

[本文引用: 1]

DELL’OSSO B, ALBERT U, ATTI A R, et al. Bridging the gap between education and appropriate use of benzodiazepines in psychiatric clinical practice[J]. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat,2015,11:1885-1909. doi:10.2147/NDT.S83130.

[本文引用: 1]

SCHIFANO F, CHIAPPINI S, CORKERY J M, et al. An insight into Z-drug abuse and dependence: An examination of reports to the european medicines agency database of suspected adverse drug reactions[J]. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol,2019,22(4):270-277. doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyz007.

[本文引用: 1]

TANG Y, ZHANG L, PAN J, et al. Unintentional poisoning in China,1990 to 2015: The global burden of disease study 2015[J]. Am J Public Health,2017,107(8):1311-1315. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.303841.

[本文引用: 1]

BERLING I, BUCKLEY N A, ISBISTER G K. The antipsychotic story: Changes in prescriptions and overdose without better safety[J]. Br J Clin Pharmacol,2016,82(1):249-254. doi:10.1111/bcp.12927.

[本文引用: 1]

SOLMI M, MURRU A, PACCHIAROTTI I, et al. Safety, tolerability, and risks associated with first- and second-generation antipsychotics: A state-of-the-art clinical review[J]. Ther Clin Risk Manag,2017,13:757-777. doi:10.2147/TCRM.S117321.

[本文引用: 1]

SHAMEER K, PEREZ-RODRIGUEZ M M, BACHAR R, et al. Pharmacological risk factors associated with hospital readmission rates in a psychiatric cohort identified using prescriptome data mining[J]. BMC Med Inform Decis,2018,18(3):79. doi:10.1186/s12911-018-0653-3.

[本文引用: 1]

FERREY A E, GEULAYOV G, CASEY D, et al. Relative toxicity of mood stabilisers and antipsychotics: Case fatality and fatal toxicity associated with self-poisoning[J]. BMC Psychiatry,2018,18(1):399. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1993-3.

[本文引用: 2]

ROCKETT I, CAINE E D, CONNERY H S, et al. Discerning suicide in drug intoxication deaths: Paucity and primacy of suicide notes and psychiatric history[J]. PLoS One,2018,13(1): e190200. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0190200.

[本文引用: 1]

FAWCETT J, SCHEFTNER W A, FOGG L, et al. Time-related predictors of suicide in major affective disorder[J]. Am J Psychiatry,1990,147(9):1189-1194. doi:10.1176/ajp.147.9.1189.

[本文引用: 1]

THOMAS K H, MARTIN R M, POTOKAR J, et al. Reporting of drug induced depression and fatal and non-fatal suicidal behaviour in the UK from 1998 to 2011[J]. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol,2014,15:54. doi:10.1186/2050-6511-15-54.

[本文引用: 1]

ICHIKURA K, OKUMURA Y, TAKEUCHI T. Associations of adverse clinical course and ingested substances among patients with deliberate drug poisoning: A cohort study from an intensive care unit in Japan[J]. PLoS One,2016,11(8): e161996. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161996.

[本文引用: 1]

LAUNIAINEN T, VUORI E, OJANPERA I. Prevalence of adverse drug combinations in a large post-mortem toxicology database[J]. Int J Legal Med,2009,123(2):109-115. doi:10.1007/s00414-008-0261-3.

[本文引用: 1]

JONES A W, HOLMGREN P. Comparison of blood-ethanol concentration in deaths attributed to acute alcohol poisoning and chronic alcoholism[J]. J Forensic Sci,2003,48(4):874-879.

[本文引用: 1]

/