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Journal of Forensic Medicine

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    28 October 2020, Volume 36 Issue 5 Previous Issue    Next Issue
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    Research Progress of Adult Age Determination with Imaging Methods
    FAN Fei, ZHAN Meng-jun, DAI Xin-hua , et al.
    2020, 36(5): 605-613.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.002
    Abstract ( 251 )   PDF (687KB) ( 728 )  
    Adult age determination plays an important role in individual identification, criminal investigation and social welfare. The most popular adult age determination indicators are pubic symphysis, iliac auricular surface, costal cartilage, cranial sutures, teeth, laryngeal cartilage, etc. In recent years, with the progress of CT imaging and 3D reconstruction technology, the adult age determination study gradually has transferred from a time-consuming general observation of bones with complex pre-processing in the past to the non-destructive, convenient, time-saving and easy to store image analysis technology. To explore more accurate, rapid and convenient adult age determination methods, multiple imaging methods and artificial intelligence have been applied in adult age determination. This paper reviews the common methods and research progress of adult age determination at home and abroad, infers the development direction of adult age determination, in order to provide reference for the improvement and optimization of forensic adult age determination.
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    Research Progress and Prospect of Facial Reconstruction in Forensic Science
    ZHAO Jia-min , CHU Guang, MOU Qing-nan , et al.
    2020, 36(5): 614-621.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.003
    Abstract ( 419 )   PDF (686KB) ( 861 )  
    Facial reconstruction is a way to recover facial morphology by restoring soft tissues based on unidentified skulls using the knowledge of anatomy, anthropology, aesthetics, and computer science. It is applied in forensic science, oral plastic surgery and archeology, and especially plays an important role in the identification of the origin of the unknown corpses in forensic science. Facial reconstruction is the supplementary means of identification when other approaches （such as DNA comparison, imaging matching, dental records comparison, etc.） cannot identify individual identity. Facial soft tissue thickness （FSTT） is the basis of facial reconstruction and with the development of imaging and computer science, the techniques for measuring FSTT are improving rapidly and many related researches have appeared. This paper summarizes the application of facial reconstruction in forensic science, the accuracy of different methods and the research progress of this field to provide reference to this field.
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    Original Articles
    Comparison of Three CNN Models Applied in Bone Age Assessment of Pelvic Radiographs of Adolescents
    PENG Li- qin , WAN Lei , WANG Mao- wen, et al.
    2020, 36(5): 622-630.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.004
    Abstract ( 216 )   PDF (1683KB) ( 632 )  
    Objective To compare the performance of three deep-learning models （VGG19, Inception-V3 and Inception-ResNet-V2） in automatic bone age assessment based on pelvic X-ray radiographs. Methods A total of 962 pelvic X ray radiographs taken from adolescents （481 males, 481 females） aged from 11.0 to 21.0 years in five provinces and cities of China were collected, preprocessed and used as objects of study. Eighty percent of these X ray radiographs were divided into training set and validation set with random sampling method and used for model fitting and hyper-parameters adjustment. Twenty percent were used as test sets, to evaluate the ability of model generalization. The performances of the three models were assessed by comparing the root mean square error （RMSE）, mean absolute error （MAE） and Bland-Altman plots between the model estimates and the chronological ages. Results The mean RMSE and MAE between bone age estimates of the VGG19 model and the chronological ages were 1.29 and 1.02 years, respectively. The mean RMSE and MAE between bone age estimates of the Inception-V3 model and the chronological ages were 1.17 and 0.82 years, respectively. The mean RMSE and MAE between bone age estimates of the Inception-ResNet-V2 model and the chronological ages were 1.11 and 0.84 years, respectively. The Bland-Altman plots showed that the mean value of differences between bone age estimates of Inception-ResNet-V2 model and the chronological ages was the lowest. Conclusion In the automatic bone age assessment of adolescent pelvis, the Inception-ResNet-V2 model performs the best while the Inception-V3 model achieves a similar accuracy as VGG19 model.
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    Establishment of Mathematical Models for Skeletal Age Determination of Extremitas Sternalis of Clavicle in Shanxi Adolescents
    ZHANG Hua-hua , ZHAO Chen , LIU Hu-yue , et al.
    2020, 36(5): 631-635，641.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.005
    Abstract ( 125 )   PDF (929KB) ( 497 )  
    Objective To develop mathematical models for skeletal age determination with multiple statistic method based on the correlation between age and the growth of the epiphysis of extremitas sternalis of clavicle in Shanxi adolescents. Methods The 562 Shanxi sternoclavicular joint samples（454 cases of modelling, 108 cases of external verification） were scanned by the thin-section computed tomography. After volume rendering was obtained, indicators such as area of epiphysis, area of metaphysis, longest diameter of epiphysis and longest diameter of metaphysis of both extremitas sternalis of clavicle were collected. Indicators such as the ratio of area of epiphysis to area of metaphysis, and the ratio of longest diameter of epiphysis to longest diameter of metaphysis of both sides were calculated. Then multiple linear regression and random forest discriminant models were used to build mathematical models for age determination of adolescents. Results The obtained indicators exhibited a strong correlation with age （r>0.85）. The multiple linear regression model for males and females （all 4 indicators entering the model） based on the ratio of longest diameter of epiphysis to longest diameter of metaphysis and the ratio of area of epiphysis to area of metaphysis had an internal validation accuracy rate （±1.0 year） of over 92% and 108 cases had an external validation accuracy rate of over 70% （±1.0 year）. The out of bag error rates of random forest discriminant models were less than 2% for people over 18.0 years old （≥18.0 years old） and under 18.0 years old. The external validation accuracy rates of the 108 cases were over 80% . Conclusion The regression and discriminant models established in this study have certain reliability and accuracy and can be used in age determination of Shanxi adolescents.
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    Estimation of Sex from Patella Measurements in Sichuan Han Population Based on CT-Three-Dimensional Volume Reconstruction Technique
    ZHAN Meng-jun , LI Ming, LI Chun-lin , et al.
    2020, 36(5): 636-641.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.006
    Abstract ( 141 )   PDF (935KB) ( 490 )  
    Objective To estimate sex based on patella measurements of Sichuan Han population by computed tomography three-dimensional volume reconstruction technique, and to explore the application value of patella in sex estimation. Methods CT three-dimensional volume reconstruction images of patella of 250 individuals were collected, the four measurement indicators including patellar length, patellar width, patellar thickness, and patellar volume were measured. The t-test was used to determine measurement indicators with sex differences. Fisher discriminant analysis was used to establish the sex discriminant function and the prediction accuracy was calculated by leave-one-out cross validation. Results The sex differences of the four measurement indicators had a statistical significance （P< 0.05）. The accuracy rate of the univariate discriminant function established by the patellar length was the highest （82.0%）. The accuracy rates of the all indicators discriminant function and the stepwise discriminant function were 80.4% and 81.6%, respectively. Conclusion It is feasible and accurate to estimate sex of Sichuan Han population by patella measurements with CT three-dimensional volume reconstruction technique. The method may be used as an alternative for sex estimation of Sichuan Han population when other bones with higher accuracy are not available.
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    Sex Characteristics and Distribution of External Ear in Uygur Population of Xinjiang
    MA Xin-fang , MAIMAITI Tu-di , WANG Jie-rui , et al.
    2020, 36(5): 642-647.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.007
    Abstract ( 965 )   PDF (2741KB) ( 537 )  
    Objective To analyze the characteristics of the bilateral external ears of Uygur adults by directly observing the morphological characteristics of the external ears of Uygur adults and classifying each feature. The frequency distribution of the characteristics was calculated to provide reference for forensic identification. Methods The 210 cases （75 males and 135 females） of bilateral external ear photos of Uygur adults in Xinjiang that met the inclusion criteria were collected. The frequencies of the features of the external ear were recorded and distinguished between the two sexes and the different sides. The data were statistically analyzed by SPSS 21.0 statistical software. Results The shapes of the external ears of males and females were commonly oblique or rectangular （34.67% of the left external ear of males and 41.33% of the right were oblique; 30.37% of the left and right external ear of females were rectangular）, while triangular ears were the rare variants and the least common. Sex and bilateral differences were observed as regards the form of the helix in the subjects. Normally rolled helix was the most common （58.67% males and 61.48% females for the left ear; 60.00% males and 72.59% females for the right ear）. Wide covering scapha helix was the most rare for the male left ear and flat helix was the most rare for the female right ear. Square and free earlobes were the most common （49.33% males and 62.96% females for the left ear; 40.00% males and 54.81% females for the right ear）, whereas triangular earlobes were rarely seen. Single knob tragus （40.00% males and 37.78% females for the left ear; 37.33% males and 33.33% females for the right ear） and projection type of Darwin’s tubercle （50.67% males and 40.00% females for the left ear; 48.00% males and 39.26% females for the right ear） were found to be common. Conclusion The characteristics of the bilateral external ears of male and female Uygur adults have differences, which can be used for forensic identification.
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    The Region of Interest in Boundary Calibration for Palatal Rugae Image of Forensic Identification
    ZHANG Xiong, LI Bing, SHANGGUAN Hong, et al.
    2020, 36(5): 648-653.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.008
    Abstract ( 137 )   PDF (2002KB) ( 502 )  
    Objective To examine the method of least-square fitting for calibrating the palatal rugae boundary. Methods According to the distribution of the teeth, the feature points were selected; when they were fit, the boundary of the palatal rugae area was created, thereby constructing a mask. The mask was used to remove the part located outside the boundary and filter out the interference. Three samples were utilized for the experiments and analyses to come. Results To evaluate the quantitative results of the fitting curves, the correlation coefficients（r）of the samples and the relationship between the actual mean value and ideal mean value was obtained through six fitting processes. The differences between the actual mean and ideal mean were found to be significantly small（from 0.285 7 to 2.500 0）in the six fitting processes, with the range of r close to 1（from 0.989 6 to 0.999 5）. Conclusion The effect of the cubic polynomial fitting method adopted in this study was stable.The proposed boundary calibration method can effectively locate the palatal rugae boundary and remove the interference area, further promoting the practice of forensic identification.
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    Sex Estimation of Typical Adult Vertebrae Morphology in Central China Based on CT Technique
    LIU Dai-ang, YANG Li , DENG Zhen-hua , et al.
    2020, 36(5): 654-659.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.009
    Abstract ( 112 )   PDF (747KB) ( 484 )  
    Objective The morphological data of the second thoracic vertebra and the third lumbar vertebra were measured by computerized tomography （CT）. The sex differences were analyzed and the discrimination equation was obtained. Methods The data of 274 adults （203 cases from experimental group and 69 cases from validation group） from central China were collected. Four linear data （maximum transverse length of vertebral body, maximum longitudinal length of vertebral body, maximum transverse length of vertebral foramen, maximum longitudinal length of vertebral foramen）, one angle data （angle between spinous processes） and two area（vertebral foramen area, total cross-sectional area of vertebral body） data of the second thoracic vertebra and the third lumbar vertebra were collected, respectively. Then three ratios［maximum transverse length/ maximum longitudinal length of vertebral body, maximum transverse length/ maximum longitudinal length of vertebral foramen, vertebral foramen area/ （total cross-sectional area of vertebral body-vertebral foramen area）］ and one angle （angle between spinous processes） were obtained. The discriminant equation was established for sexual discriminant analysis. Results The morphology of the second thoracic vertebra and the third lumbar vertebra was related with gender. Four single index discriminant formulae and eleven multi- index discriminant formulae were established. The 69 validation group samples were substituted into the formula for testing, and the maximum discriminant accuracy rate of the single-index discriminant formula was 75%. The maximum discriminant accuracy rate of multi-index discriminant formula was 83%. Conclusion It is feasible to conduct individual sex analysis by the morphological indexes of second thoracic vertebra and the third lumbar vertebra. The indexes have important application values in practice.
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    Estimating Postmortem Interval by Protein Chip Detection Technology Combined with Multidimensional Statistics
    LI Wen-jin, LI Jian, LU Xiao-jun, et al.
    2020, 36(5): 660-665，671.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.010
    Abstract ( 159 )   PDF (2557KB) ( 435 )  
    Objective To obtain the protein expression profile of rat liver tissue after death by the 2100 bioanalyzer combined with protein chip, and infer the relationship between protein expression profile and postmortem interval. Methods Rats were killed by abdominal anesthesia and placed at 16 ℃. Water-soluble proteins in liver tissues were extracted at 14 time points after death. The expression profile data of proteins with relative molecular weight of 14 000- 230 000 were obtained using protein chip, and principal component analysis （PCA）, partial least squares-discriminant analysis （PLS-DA） and Fisher discriminant were used to analyze the data. Results According to the changes of protein expression profile, the postmortem interval was divided into group A（0 d）, group B （1-9 d）, group C （12-30 d） according to the result of PLS- DA. The prediction accuracy of the training set and test set of the model were all 100.0%, and the internal cross-validation of the training set was 100.0% according to Fisher discriminant. The Fisher discriminant model at each time point of group B and C was established to narrow the time window of postmortem interval estimation. The prediction accuracy of the training set and test set were all 100.0%, and the internal cross-validation accuracy of the training set was 100.0% in group B. The prediction accuracy of the training set and test set were respectively 95.2% and 78.6% in group C, and the internal cross-validation of the training set was 88.1%. Conclusion Protein chip detection technology can quickly and easily obtain the expression profile of water-soluble proteins of rat liver tissue with a relative molecular weight of 14 000-230 000 at different time points after death. PLS-DA and Fisher discriminant models are established to classify and predict the postmortem interval, in order to provide new ideas and methods for postmortem interval estimation.
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    Analysis of Influencing Factors of Single Camera Photogrammetry in Forensic Three-Dimensional Reconstruction
    ZOU Dong-hua , WANG Jin-ming, CHEN Yi-jiu, et al.
    2020, 36(5): 666-671.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.011
    Abstract ( 117 )   PDF (1163KB) ( 429 )  
    Objective To evaluate the influence of factors such as the selection of equipment, focal length and the selection of reconstruction quality in the reconstruction software on the reconstruction results of single camera photogrammetry and provide reference for the forensic application of single camera photogrammetry. Methods The 19 skulls were measured by traditional measurement method and single camera photogrammetry. The differences between the two measurement methods and within the group with same equipment but different focal length were analyzed. One skull and one corpse were selected as the research objects. According to the reconstruction quality selection conditions in the photogrammetric software, the experimental group was divided into five grades. The model reconstructed by optical scanner was defined as reference model, while the model reconstructed by single camera photogrammetry was defined as test model. The test model was aligned with the reference model, 3D deviation analysis was carried out and the mean error and root mean square （RMS） values were calculated. Results The differences between EOS 7D zoom group and traditional measurement, and within the group with same equipment had statistical significance （P<0.05）. The mean error value and minimum RMS value of the skull reconstructed by single camera photogrammetry and the three-dimensional model of the corpse existed in the medium quality group, and the trend was basically the same. Conclusion The equipment and focal length has no obvious influence on the results of single camera photogrammetry. Lower reconstruction quality can easily cause distortion, while higher reconstruction quality can easily generate noise, so medium quality is preferred.
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    Analysis of Correlation between Gene Polymorphisms of CRHBP in Yunnan Han Population and Schizophrenia and Aggressive Behavior
    CHEN Yang , HU Li-ping , LIU Lin-lin , et al.
    2020, 36(5): 672-676.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.012
    Abstract ( 122 )   PDF (701KB) ( 564 )  
    Objective To explore the correlation between 4 tag single nucleotide polymorphisms （Tag SNP） sites （rs7721799, rs32897, rs7718461, rs10062367）of corticotropin releasing hormone binding protein （CRHBP） and schizophrenia and aggressive behavior in the Yunnan Han population. Methods Casecontrol correlation analysis was used to establish a complex amplification system. Improved multiplex ligase detection reaction（iMLDR）technology was used to detect the genotypes of 4 SNP sites of CRHBP gene of 163 Han schizophrenic patients （including 81 patients with aggressive behavior, 82 patients without aggressive behavior）and 345 healthy Han individuals, which were analyzed statistically by SPSS 19.0, Haploview 4.2 and PHASE 2.1 software. Results There was no correlation between the 3 SNP sites of CRHBP gene and the onset of schizophrenia except for the rs7718461 site （P>0.05）. The relative risk of aggressive behavior of patients carrying GG or GA genotype at rs7718461 site were 4.903 times higher than those carrying AA genotype （P<0.05）. Conclusion The CRHBP gene may not be associated with the occurrence of schizophrenia in Yunnan Han population, but AA genotype of rs7718461 may reduce the risk of aggressive behavior in schizophrenia patients.
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    Structure Analysis and Characterization of Aminorex Analogue 4’-F-4-MAR
    LIU Cui-mei, HUA Zhen-dong, JIA Wei
    2020, 36(5): 677-681，687.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.013
    Abstract ( 114 )   PDF (1050KB) ( 554 )  
    Objective To study the identification method for 4’-F-4-methylaminorex（4’-F-4-MAR） in samples without reference substance. Methods Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry （GC-MS）, ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight-mass spectrometry （UPLC-QTOFMS）, nuclear magnetic resonance （NMR） and Fourier transform infrared （FTIR） were comprehensively used for the structure identification of 4’-F-4-MAR in samples. Results Under the positive electrospray ionization （ESI + ） mode, quasi- molecular ion in the first order mass spectrometry of the unknown compound was 195.092 6 and its molecular formula was inferred to be C10H11FN2O. The fragment ions in the mass spectrometry of the unknown compound were compared with the related fragment ions of 4,4’-dimethylaminorex （4,4’-DMAR） in literature. It was found that the main fragment ions of the unknown compound were all 4 bigger than the corresponding fragment ions of 4,4’-DMAR. Therefore, the unknown compound was inferred to be a 4,4’-DMAR analogue with a methyl substituted by a fluorine in the benzene ring. The equivalent protons at δ=7.30 and δ=7.06 in 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance （1H-NMR） spectra and the characteristic spin-spin coupling constants （1JC- F=245.2 Hz, 2JC-F= 21.3 Hz, 3JC-F=8.1 Hz） for 13C-19F interactions in carbon spectra, further proved that the fluorine substituted methyl at the para-position of the benzene ring. Finally, the unknown compound was determined as 4’-F-4-MAR. Conclusion A method that comprehensively used the identification materials 4’-F-4- MAR in GC-MS, UPLC-QTOF-MS, NMR and FTIR is established and the fragmentation mechanism of fragmentation ions of 4’- F- 4- MAR created under the two modes -- electron impact （EI） and electrospray ionization under collision induced dissociation（ESI-CID）is deduced. The information will assist forensic science laboratories in identifying this compound or other substances with similar structure in their case work.
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    Influence of Halogenated Hydroxyl-Alkanes Inhalation Anesthetic on the Determination of Ethanol Content in Blood
    XIE Bing , YAN Wen- jing, MENG Xian- yue, et al.
    2020, 36(5): 682-687.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.014
    Abstract ( 123 )   PDF (1761KB) ( 445 )  
    Objective To study the influence of halogenated hydroxyl-alkanes inhalation anesthetic on the determination of ethanol content in blood. Methods Halogenated hydroxyl-alkanes were analyzed by headspace gas chromatography with double column confirmatory detection method. The influence of halogenated hydroxyl-alkanes on determination of ethanol content in blood sample by headspace gas chromatography was explored under the different detection conditions of KB-BAC1/ KB-BAC2 and J&W DBALC1/DB-ALC2 gas chromatographic column. Results The retention time of sevoflurane and enflurane was similar to that of ethanol and tert butanol respectively when using the J&W DB-ALC1/DB-ALC2 gas chromatographic column, and interfered with the detection of ethanol content in blood; only J&W DB-ALC1 gas chromatographic column can separate the sevoflurane and ethanol components, so as to eliminate their influence on the detection of ethanol content in blood. When using KB- BAC1/KBBAC2 gas chromatographic column, the retention time of sevoflurane, isoflurane and ethanol is similar, especially that of sevoflurane and ethanol, and sevoflurane obviously interferes with the determination of ethanol content in blood. Conclusion Halogenated hydroxy-alkanes interfere with determination of ethanol content in blood by headspace gas chromatography. The interference can be discriminated effectively by choosing the suitable chromatographic column and double column confirmatory detection
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    Cases Study
    Forensic Analysis of 133 Cases of Knee Injuries
    ZAI Chao, ZHANG Ling-li , HE Fang-gang
    2020, 36(5): 688-690，698.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.015
    Abstract ( 304 )   PDF (869KB) ( 663 )  
    Objective To discuss the types, characteristics, and the evaluation of disability of knee injuries. Methods The data of 133 cases of knee injury from 2017 to 2019 were collected and statistically analyzed according to the region of injury, the degree of disability, etc. Results One hundred and twentyfive cases of injury were compound, and 8 cases were simple. The incidences of ligament injury, meniscus injury and fracture were 88.72%, 75.19% and 57.89%, respectively. Of the cruciate ligament injuries, 12 cases were posterior cruciate ligament injury while 51 cases were anterior cruciate ligament injury, and the differences between the two kinds of injury had statistical significance （P<0.05）; 32 cases were secondary traumatic arthritis. The rates of disability of knee injuries were 38.35% （Grade Ⅸ and Ⅹ）. Conclusion Compound knee injuries are common, and traumatic arthritis has a relatively high rate. Multiple injuries can affect the stability and weight-bearing of the knee joint. It is suggested that in addition to evaluating the range of motion of knee joint, multiple factors should be considered to assess disability.
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    Review
    Research Progress on Complex Kinship Analysis
    LI Mei, LI Shi-ying, ZHANG Bei-bei, et al.
    2020, 36(5): 691-698.  DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2020.05.016
    Abstract ( 446 )   PDF (682KB) ( 763 )  
    Complex kinship analysis refers to a kind of special kinship analysis taken for the purpose of personal identification or other issues in civil or criminal cases because the father or （and） mother is dead, or cannot participate in the analysis for other reasons. Due to the absence of significant appraised persons in this kind of kinship analysis, grandparents, siblings or collateral relatives are required to participate in the analysis. Complex kinship analysis is widely used and the demand is increasing year by year. This paper analyzes the main types of complex kinships, the genetic markers of complex kinship analysis and their advantages and disadvantages and the calculation methods for complex kinship analysis by referring to the relevant literatures at home and abroad in recent years. At the same time, the shortcomings of the present research on complex kinship and its future development are prospected.
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    Education and Administration